We
can study the
structure of language in a variety of ways. For example,
we can study classes of words
(parts of speech), meanings of
words,
with
or
without
considering
changes
of
meaning
(semantics),
how
words
are organized
in
relation
to
each
other and in larger constructions (syntax), how
words
are formed
from
smaller
meaningful
units
(morphology),
the
sounds
of
words (perception and pronunciation or articulation), and how
they form patterns of knowledge in the speaker's mind (phonetics and
phonology)
and how
standardized
written
forms
represent
words
(orthography).
Since this website is primarily
devoted to the exploration of
English through its words, the focus
in this website is on
morphology (word structure) and other
aspects of words, such as
etymology, lexical semantic change, word usage, lexical types
of words, and words marking specific linguistic varieties.
All words are, at the their most basic, collections of different sounds. Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the sounds of speech and their production, combination, description, and representation by written symbols. Sounds are generally categorized by place of articulation, method of articulation, and voicing. While these individual sounds are the most basic elements of language, they do not have meaning in of themselves (apart from some sounds which can be considered sound symbolic).
Parsings/etymologies of articulatory terminology for English
consonants. Most of the following terms come from Latin. The exceptions
are glottal, glottis which are based on a Greek root.
Manners of articulation
The adjective endings -ive and -al below are in these articulatory terms being used as noun endings, via leaving out the nouns they modify (e.g. 'plosive sounds' > 'plosives' etc.) We can think of this as a zero-derivation of nouns from adjectives. I gloss them here as adjective endings because that is their primary use and these terms are still easily used as adjectives.
Inflection occurs when a word has different forms but essentially the same meaning, and there is only a grammatical difference between them: for example, "make" and "makes". The "-s" is an inflectional morpheme.
In contrast, derivation makes a word with a clearly different meaning: such as "unhappy" or "happiness", both from "happy". The "un-" and "-ness" are derivational morphemes. Normally a dictionary would list derived words, but there is no need to list "makes" in a dictionary as well as "make."
It is important to recognize that there is no one-to-one correspondence between form and meaning, and that what counts for identification as a morpheme is both form AND meaning. Let's consider some potentially tricky situations that can arise in deciding whether we're dealing with a single morpheme or more than one:
1. Two different morphemes can accidentally have the same form. Some English morphemes for which this is the case are the following ("Greek prefix", "Latin root" etc. are abbreviations for "prefix borrowed from (Classical) Greek", "root morpheme borrowed from Latin" etc.):
2. Forms with the same meaning may also be different morphemes. There are two subcases of this:
The alternate forms in these cases are called allomorphs ( < Greek prefix allo- 'other'). We will discuss many cases of allomorphy in class; they are treated in Chapter 4 of Denning and Leben.
Roots and Affixes
Morphemes (minimal units of meaning) are of two basic kinds: roots and affixes . While there is not an absolutely sharp dividing line between them, due to the natural, gradual historical progression from root to affix, there are various properties that typically cluster together, thus allowing us to distinguish the two types. For most morphemes, it is clear which class they belong in.
Properties of roots:
A third type of linguistic element is a function word, which occurs in certain languages like English, which don't have much bound morphology -- that is, languages with lots of free morphemes, instead of mostly words with roots and attached bound morphemes.
In such languages, many grammatical functions are served by function words: small units that have some independence, occuring with more freedom of position than affixes (thus they are somewhat root-like), but which have grammar-like meaning rather than concrete lexical content (which makes them more affix-like). Some function words in English are the, a, he, she, it, if, although, etc.
Function words can be thought of as right in between roots and affixes. Prepositions (like English over, in, through) are sometimes classed as function words and sometimes as roots--because they are, again, intermediate. In form, they are free morphemes. In terms of function, they have (especially in their spatial meanings) more concrete lexical content than most grammatical elements, but their meaning is still rather abstract and relational. (Note that in Greek and Latin, the elements corresponding to the English prepositions are bound morphemes rather than free function words. These are the spatial prefixes such as circum-, meta-, sub-, etc.)
ROOT > PREPOSITION > FUNCTION WORD > AFFIX
Greek and Latin Morphemes in English Words
These are some Greek and Latin morphemes found in English words, in no particular order.
Latin had grammatical systems in which both the nouns and the verbs (and to a certain extent the adjectives) fell into classes. The class a word belonged to determined the particular inflectional endings it occurred with
Noun classes
Latin had two simultaneously operative noun class systems: gender (masculine, feminine and neuter) and also what are called declensions. There were five different noun declensions, and the declensions were more important for determining the endings on nouns than the gender. (Declensions gradually became less important and finally essentially disappeared, leaving only the two-way gender classifications in the modern Romance languages). Membership in a given declension was arbitrary, or rather only understandable historically.
The form of a noun that was most diagnostic of which declension it belonged to was the genitive (possessive) case. In other words, you could tell what class the word was in by looking at the genitive form. The declensions were numbered arbitrarily (first through fifth) by the Roman grammarians.
For example, the first declension is identifiable by the ending -ae in the genitive:
The second declension has -i in the genitive:
The third declension has -is in the genitive:
The fourth declension has -us (having a long form of the vowel in the ending) in the genitive:
The fifth declension has -ei in the genitive:
Most nouns fell into one of the first three declensions; the fourth and fifth were rarer.
Each of the declensions had its own set of case and number endings (although there was some degree of overlap). The genitive endings are most important, not only from the Latin point of view (because they indicate which declension a noun belongs to), but from the ENGLISH point of view. The genitive shows the stem of the noun, that is, is the fullest form to which case/number endings were added; and the stem is the form that occurs in almost all English borrowings from Latin.
For example, the word for 'king' is in the nominative case form rex, but its genitive form is regis. Take off the genitive ending -is and we have the stem, reg- , which occurs in Latin borrowings like regicide and regency.
Verb classes
The verbs of Latin fell into four classes, called conjugations. The endings for person and number were slightly different depending on the conjugation; the tense endings show a little more distinction between the classes. The most obvious way the conjugations differed was in the vowel in the second syllable of the root (or first, if only one syllable). That vowel recurred in different forms of the verb, but it is easiest to notice in the infinitive form. (The infinitive is the form that can stand alone, but is not inflected with any person and number endings. (We parse the word in-finit-ive 'without endings'.) The infinitive most closely corresponds translationally to the English to form of a verb as in to go . Notice:
The first conjugation has ain the infinitive:
The second has a long ein the infinitive:
The third has a short e:
And the fourth has an i in the infinitive:
The modern languages descended from Latin have for the most part
reduced this to a three-way verb conjugation system, having lost the
vowel length distinctions that Latin had. Again, membership in the
conjugation classes was essentially arbitrary. It resulted from
historical origin and sound change factors, but had nothing to do with
the meanings of the verbs.
Knowing just four forms of a verb, one could derive all of the dozens of person/number/tense/voice/mood forms for that verb. These four forms are called the principal parts:
The four principal parts above represent the four basic stems of
a Latin verb. Think of Latin word building as follows: A word consists
of a ROOT, plus, perhaps, some additional material from a declensional
class or conjugation class; together these form a STEM. Then, since
Latin is an inflectional language, the word still needs to be filled out
with specific inflectional endings. For verbs, these include person,
number, tense, voice, and mood, and gender if it is a participle. For
nouns, inflections include number, gender, and case. Once the
inflections are added we have a full, derived WORD.
The most important forms from the point of view of English borrowings are the present infinitive stem and the past participle stem. They are the forms which almost always appear in English borrowings from Latin. Examples:
Pres. infinitive stem:
753 BC — Traditional date of the founding of the city of Rome by Romulus, a fictional character who killed his twin brother Remus, populated his city with escaped convicts, and found wives for his subjects by kidnapping Sabine women who had come for a visit. At this stage, Latin is the language spoken by several thousand people in and near Rome.
6th century BC — Earliest known Latin inscription, on a pin, which says "Manios me fhefhaked Numasioi", meaning "Manius made me for Numerius". Only a few other inscriptions predate the 3rd century BC.
250-100 BC — Early Latin. The first Latin literature, usually loose translations of Greek works or imitations of Greek genres, stems from this period. Meanwhile, the Romans are conquering the Mediterranean world and bringing their language with them.
100 BC-150 AD — Classical Latin. Guys like Cicero, Caesar, Vergil, and Tacitus write masterpieces of Latin literature. Also, Ovid writes a book on how to pick up women at the gladiator shows. The literary language becomes fixed and gradually loses touch with the ever- changing popular language known today as Vulgar Latin.
200-550 — Late Latin. Some varieties of literature adhere closely to the classical standard, others are less polished or deliberately closer to the popular speech (e.g., St. Jerome's translation of the Bible into Latin—the Vulgate). The western half of the empire is falling to pieces, but the Greek-speaking east, which is still in good shape, keeps using Latin in official contexts until the end of this period.
600-750 — Latin has become a dead language. Few people in the west outside of monasteries can read. The spoken languages of Italy, France and Spain change rapidly. Monks, particularly in Ireland, read and write classical Latin and preserve ancient texts as well as church documents. The Roman Catholic church continues to use Late Latin in the liturgy, though they eventually decide to deliver homilies in the local popular language. The Byzantines still call themselves Romans but have given up on the Latin language.
800-900 — The Carolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne decides that education is a good thing and promotes it in his kingdoms. After his death scholarship goes downhill a while, but never as far as it had before his reign.
1100-1300 — Contact with the educated Arabs who have conquered North Africa and Spain leads to a revival of learning, especially the study of Aristotle and other Greeks. Leading smart guys include St. Thomas "The Dumb Ox" Aquinas and John "Dunce" Scotus, as well as Petrus Hispanus, a pope who was killed when a ceiling collapsed on him. All learned writing is done in Latin, a practice which persisted until the 20th century at some fairly silly universities.
Mid 14th century — The Black Death kills a lot of people, including students, professors and other people who live in crowded, unsanitary cities. This is bad for the educational system. Meanwhile, an Italian poet named Petrarch decides that plague-infested professors and anyone else who doesn't write the classical Latin used by Cicero is a moron. In fact, everyone between Cicero and Petrarch was a moron in the latter's opinion, so it was high time to have a Renaissance and make fun of everything medieval.
1400-1650 — During the Renaissance, which spreads from Italy to France and finally to England, people start reading Latin classical authors and bringing Latin words into their languages. In England, this is called "aureate diction" and is considered evidence of great learnedness. Furthermore, as science develops, Europeans find it useful to have a universal Latinate terminology to facilitate international research.
up till 1900 — Almost everyone who goes to college has to learn Latin, and most humanities majors have to study Greek as well. Many of the Latin roots borrowed during the aureate diction period have come to seem native and can be used in forming new words.
mid 1960s — The Catholic Church decides that Latin is no longer the obligatory language of Catholic liturgies. Meanwhile, what with free love and everything, most young people of the 60s figure they have better things to do than learn Latin.
Today — Nobody speaks Latin well, and few people can write it, but lots can read it. Many of them are tenured professors, so they'd be hard to get rid of even if we wanted to.
Throughout the history of English new words have been incorporated into the language through borrowing (from languages as varied as Latin, Greek, Scandinavian, Arabic, and many others) as well as through the application of morphological and derivational rules to existing words and morphemes. Words currently entering the language are called neologisms (from "neo" new and "log" word).
Major Periods of Borrowing
Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language (the source language). A loanword can also be called a borrowing. The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source language into their native language. "Loan" and "borrowing" are of course metaphors, because there is no literal lending process. There is no transfer from one language to another, and no "returning" words to the source language. The words simply come to be used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one these words originated in.
Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other. In this case the source language community has some advantage of power, prestige and/or wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable and useful to the borrowing language community. For example, the Germanic tribes in the first few centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they adopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the other hand, passed into Latin.
The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing language know the source language too, or at least enough of it to utilize the relevant word. They (often consciously) adopt the new word when speaking the borrowing language, because it most exactly fits the idea they are trying to express. If they are bilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the words the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. For example, English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with a pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found. Presumably the very first speakers who used the word in English knew at least some French and heard the word used by French speakers, in a French-speaking context.
Those who first use the new word might use it at first only with speakers of the source language who know the word, but at some point they come to use the word with those to whom the word was not previously known. To these speakers the word may sound 'foreign'. At this stage, when most speakers do not know the word and if they hear it think it is from another language, the word can be called a foreign word. There are many foreign words and phrases used in English such as bon vivant (French), mutatis mutandis (Latin), and Fahrvergnuegen (German).
However, in time more speakers can become familiar with a new foreign word or expression. The community of users of this word can grow to the point where even people who know little or nothing of the source language understand, and even use, the novel word themselves. The new word becomes conventionalized: part of the conventional ways of speaking in the borrowing language. At this point we call it a borrowing or loanword.
(It should be noted that not all foreign words do become loanwords; if they fall out of use before they become widespread, they do not reach the loanword stage.)
Conventionalization is a gradual process in which a word progressively permeates a larger and larger speech community, becoming part of ever more people's linguistic repetoire. As part of its becoming more familiar to more people, a newly borrowed word gradually adopts sound and other characteristics of the borrowing language as speakers who do not know the source language accommodate it to their own linguistic systems. In time, people in the borrowing community do not perceive the word as a loanword at all. Generally, the longer a borrowed word has been in the language, and the more frequently it is used, the more it resembles the native words of the language.
English has gone through many periods in which large numbers of words from a particular language were borrowed. These periods coincide with times of major cultural contact between English speakers and those speaking other languages. The waves of borrowing during periods of especially strong cultural contacts are not sharply delimited, and can overlap. For example, the Norse influence on English began already in the 8th century A.D. and continued strongly well after the Norman Conquest brought a large influx of Norman French to the language.
It is part of the cultural history of English speakers that they have always adopted loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they have come in contact with. There have been few periods when borrowing became unfashionable, and there has never been a national academy in Britain, the U.S., or other English-speaking countries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continental European countries.
The following list is a small sampling of the loanwords that came into English in different periods and from different languages.
I. Germanic period
Latin
The forms given in this section are the Old English ones. The original Latin source word is given in parentheses where significantly different. Some Latin words were themselves originally borrowed from Greek. It can be deduced that these borrowings date from the time before the Angles and Saxons left the continent for England, because of very similar forms found in the other old Germanic languages (Old High German, Old Saxon, etc.). The source words are generally attested in Latin texts, in the large body of Latin writings that were preserved through the ages.
II. Old English Period (600-1100)
Latin
Celtic
(few ordinary words, but thousands of place and river names: London, Carlisle,
Devon, Dover, Cornwall, Thames, Avon...)
III. Middle English Period (1100-1500)
Scandinavian
Most of these first appeared in the written language in Middle English; but many were no doubt borrowed earlier, during the period of the Danelaw (9th-10th centuries).
Sometimes it's hard to tell whether a given word came from French or whether it was taken straight from Latin. Words for which this difficulty occurs are those in which there were no special sound and/or spelling changes of the sort that distinguished French from Latin
IV. Early Modern English Period (1500-1650)
The effects of the renaissance begin to be seriously felt in England. We see the beginnings of a huge influx of Latin and Greek words, many of them learned words imported by scholars well versed in those languages. But many are borrowings from other languages, as words from European high culture begin to make their presence felt and the first words come in from the earliest period of colonial expansion.
Latin
Period of major colonial expansion, industrial/technological revolution, and American immigration.
Words from European languages
French
French continues to be the largest single source of new words outside of very specialized vocabulary domains (scientific/technical vocabulary, still dominated by classical borrowings).
Sanskrit
These are neologisms collected by an undergraduate linguistics class at Rice University during the fall of 2003.
A
B
- Phonetics
All words are, at the their most basic, collections of different sounds. Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the sounds of speech and their production, combination, description, and representation by written symbols. Sounds are generally categorized by place of articulation, method of articulation, and voicing. While these individual sounds are the most basic elements of language, they do not have meaning in of themselves (apart from some sounds which can be considered sound symbolic).
Phonetics terms and their etymologies
Sound Terminology |
Places of articulation
bilabial |
|
'produced with the two lips' |
interdental |
|
'produced with tongue between the teeth' |
alveolar |
|
'produced at the alveolus, i.e. the alveolar ridge' (so called because it abuts on the tooth sockets, or alveoli 'little hollows') |
|
'produced starting at the alveolar ridge then immediately afterwards at the palate' ( alveol is from alveol-us, the diminutive form of alveus 'a cavity, hollow') | |
palatal |
|
'produced at the palate' (palate has an uncertain etymology; possibly Latin borrowed it from Etruscan) |
velar |
|
'produced at the velum, or soft palate' |
glottal |
|
'produced at the glottis' (the vocal chord part of tongue, the upper larynx) |
The adjective endings -ive and -al below are in these articulatory terms being used as noun endings, via leaving out the nouns they modify (e.g. 'plosive sounds' > 'plosives' etc.) We can think of this as a zero-derivation of nouns from adjectives. I gloss them here as adjective endings because that is their primary use and these terms are still easily used as adjectives.
stop |
|
'sound produced with total stoppage of airflow in the mouth' same as: |
plosive |
|
(see above) |
fricative |
|
'sound produced with partial occlusion of vocal tract, producing audible friction' (e.g. /f/, /s/) |
|
'sound produced by stopping airflow and then partial release into a fricative at or near same point of articulation' (e.g. /ch/) | |
nasal |
|
'sound produced by stopping airflow in mouth, but allowing it to continue flowing through nasal tract' |
liquid |
|
'/l/ and /r/ sounds' (so called because they give acoustic impression sounding like water flowing) |
lateral |
|
'sound produced by touching tongue to roof of mouth and letting air pass at one or both sides of the tongue' (/l/ is the only lateral in English) |
approximant |
|
'consonant produced with relatively wide opening between articulators; an in-between sound that approximates or comes near to a vowel sound' (/y/ and /w/ are the main English approximants; sometimes /l/ is called a lateral approximant) |
- Morphology
Inflection occurs when a word has different forms but essentially the same meaning, and there is only a grammatical difference between them: for example, "make" and "makes". The "-s" is an inflectional morpheme.
In contrast, derivation makes a word with a clearly different meaning: such as "unhappy" or "happiness", both from "happy". The "un-" and "-ness" are derivational morphemes. Normally a dictionary would list derived words, but there is no need to list "makes" in a dictionary as well as "make."
Morphemes and allomorphy
Morphemes are form/meaning pairings (where "form" = distinctive
string of sounds). Morphemes can be roots or affixes, depending on
whether they are the main part or dependent part of a word (cf. Roots vs. Affixes).It is important to recognize that there is no one-to-one correspondence between form and meaning, and that what counts for identification as a morpheme is both form AND meaning. Let's consider some potentially tricky situations that can arise in deciding whether we're dealing with a single morpheme or more than one:
1. Two different morphemes can accidentally have the same form. Some English morphemes for which this is the case are the following ("Greek prefix", "Latin root" etc. are abbreviations for "prefix borrowed from (Classical) Greek", "root morpheme borrowed from Latin" etc.):
- a indefinite article (native English--a free morpheme)
a- 'not' (one form of a Greek prefix) - in- 'not' (Latin prefix) ( insoluble, inclement )
in- 'into, within' (Latin prefix) ( ingress, invade ) - homo 'human being' (Latin root)
homo- 'same' (Greek prefix)
2. Forms with the same meaning may also be different morphemes. There are two subcases of this:
- the forms may be rather different from one another. Example:
a-/an- 'not' (Greek prefix)
in- 'not' (Latin prefix) (other allomorphs im-, il-, ir- , etc.)
un- 'not' (native English prefix)
In this example, the first two morphemes were borrowed into English from different languages, a sufficient reason for thinking of them as different elements and hence distinct morphemes. The third is native English, which means another different linguistic source and hence a different element. It so happens that in this case, all three morphemes go back to a prehistoric word meaning 'not' that linguists have reconstructed as part of the original language that gave rise to Latin, Greek, English, and other related languages. But the connection is too far back to think of them as a unitary element in English.
- the forms may be the same or very similar, but like the above case, their sources are different languages. Example:
in- 'into, within' (Latin prefix)
in(-) 'into, within' (native English preposition and prefix)
As above, these two happen to go back to a common ancestral source morpheme, before Latin and English (and their closest relatives) evolved into separate languages. (This historical fact accounts for why the forms are similar.) But again, the unity of these elements is only historical. Because the immediate source languages are different, it is reasonable to think of them as different elements. This kind of situation, in which our definition of morpheme as an element pairing a particular form with a particular meaning might lead us to call these one morpheme, but our historical knowledge leads us to call them two, is comparatively rare. We need not let such a borderline case detract from our basic understanding of a morpheme. They are mentioned here only for completeness' sake.
- a- and an- 'not' (Greek prefix)
- se- and sed- 'apart' (Latin prefix)
The alternate forms in these cases are called allomorphs ( < Greek prefix allo- 'other'). We will discuss many cases of allomorphy in class; they are treated in Chapter 4 of Denning and Leben.
Roots and Affixes
Morphemes (minimal units of meaning) are of two basic kinds: roots and affixes . While there is not an absolutely sharp dividing line between them, due to the natural, gradual historical progression from root to affix, there are various properties that typically cluster together, thus allowing us to distinguish the two types. For most morphemes, it is clear which class they belong in.
Properties of roots:
- main part of word
- must be at least one in a word
- in English, limited to two in a word (simple words have one, compound words have two); where roots are bound, as in Latin or Greek, more can occur in a word, but the number of roots in a particular word is generally small;
- can occur independently (free roots)--although bound roots , particularly classical, occur
- tend to have richer, more specific semantic content
- position is relatively free with respect to other roots (cf. photograph vs. telephoto)
- subordinate part of word
- not necessarily present--some words occur without any
- multiple affixes can occur in a word (e.g. in-divis-abil-ity)
- are dependent (bound) elements (where independent form found, generally to some degree dissociated from the bound version)
- have more "schematic" (non-specific) content; often grammar-like function
- can either precede or follow their roots ( prefixes and suffixes ,respectively)
- position for a given affix with respect to root is fixed
A third type of linguistic element is a function word, which occurs in certain languages like English, which don't have much bound morphology -- that is, languages with lots of free morphemes, instead of mostly words with roots and attached bound morphemes.
In such languages, many grammatical functions are served by function words: small units that have some independence, occuring with more freedom of position than affixes (thus they are somewhat root-like), but which have grammar-like meaning rather than concrete lexical content (which makes them more affix-like). Some function words in English are the, a, he, she, it, if, although, etc.
Function words can be thought of as right in between roots and affixes. Prepositions (like English over, in, through) are sometimes classed as function words and sometimes as roots--because they are, again, intermediate. In form, they are free morphemes. In terms of function, they have (especially in their spatial meanings) more concrete lexical content than most grammatical elements, but their meaning is still rather abstract and relational. (Note that in Greek and Latin, the elements corresponding to the English prepositions are bound morphemes rather than free function words. These are the spatial prefixes such as circum-, meta-, sub-, etc.)
ROOT > PREPOSITION > FUNCTION WORD > AFFIX
Greek and Latin Morphemes in English Words
These are some Greek and Latin morphemes found in English words, in no particular order.
-ic | A,N |
-ize | V |
-y | N |
anthrop | human |
bio | life |
cac | bad |
chrom | color |
chron | time |
circum- | around |
cosm | universe, order, ornament |
de- | in reverse, away, down |
ecto- | outside |
endo- | inside |
extra- | outside |
gam | marriage, sexual union |
iatr | treat, heal |
idi | individual, own |
infra- | below, after |
inter- | between, among |
intra- | within |
log | study, speak |
macro- | long, large |
micro- | small |
mis- | hate |
morph | shape, form |
nom | law, system |
path | feel, illness |
peri- | around, close |
phil | love, tendency |
phon | sound, speech sound |
pol | community, city, state |
post- | after, behind |
pre- | before |
pseud | false |
psych | mind, spirit |
pyr | fire, fever |
supra- | above, greater |
theo | god |
top | place |
xen | foreign |
a-/an- | not, without |
anim | mind, spirit, life |
ab-/abs- | from, away |
-ary/-ory | A, N |
-ate | N, A, V* |
contra-/counter- | against, facing |
corp/corpor | body, flesh |
culp | fault, crime |
duc | lead, draw, pull |
-ence/-ance | N |
-ent/-ant | A, N |
fug | flee |
grat | thankful, kind |
greg | gather |
hom | earthling, human |
-ion | N |
-ive | A, N |
leg | law, charge |
liber | weigh, consider |
liter | letter |
mot | move |
nat | source, birth, tribe |
nov | new |
omni- | all |
-ous | A |
par | beget, produce |
per- | through, bad |
pet | go, seek |
petr | rock |
pot | be able, powerful |
pro- | forward, for |
prob | test, find good |
re-/red- | again, back |
sci | know, discern |
se-/sed- | apart |
sec | cut, split |
somn | sleep |
tempor | time |
ven | come, bring |
ver | true |
al/ol | nurture, grow |
am/im/amor | love |
ana- | up, again, back |
ann/enn | year |
ante-/anti- | old, before |
apec/apic | tip |
apt/ept | fit, capable |
bol/bl | throw, extend |
cap/cep/cip/cup | take, contain |
cata- | down, away, back, opposite |
cer/cre/cr | separate, judge |
cid/cis | cut, kill |
con-/co- | together, with |
cub/cumb | lie down, remain |
dei/div | god, augury |
dia- | through, apart |
equ/iqu | even, level |
erg/urg/org | work |
fac/fec/fic | do, make |
frag/frang/fring | break |
fus | pour, melt, blend |
gon/gen/gn | birth, type, origin |
hypo- | under, below, partial |
in-/en- | in, into |
men/mn | think, mind |
meta- | beyond |
noc/nec/nic/necr | harm, death |
-oid | resembling [A, N] |
para- | beside, resembling |
pond/pend | hang, weigh, pay, consider |
sacer/secr | holy, priestlike |
semen/semin | seed |
spec/spic | look, see |
sta/stat/stet/stit | stand, condition |
tat/teg/tig/tang/ting | touch, feel |
ten/tin | hold, maintain |
tom/tm | cut |
vic/vinc | conquer |
vor | eat |
zo | animal |
-ity | N [name of quality] |
-sis | N [name of action or its result] |
ad- | to, toward |
ag/ig | act, do, drive |
alt | high |
ambl | walk, go |
andr | male, man |
apo- | away, from, off |
arch | first, govern |
av | bird, fly |
cad/cas/cid | fall |
ced/ceed/cess | go, let go |
clud/clus | to close |
dog/doc | teach |
epi- | on, over |
ero | physical love |
esthet/esthes | perceive, feel |
eu | well, good |
ex-/e-/ec- | out, away |
grad/gred/gress | step, go |
heli | sun |
hetero- | other, different |
homo-/homeo- | same |
in- | not |
iso- | equal |
leg/lig | pick, read |
lic | permissible, unrestrained |
meso- | middle |
neo | new, recent |
ob- | towards, against, down |
phot/phos | light |
prag | act, do |
reg/rig | rule, straight |
sent/sens | feel, think |
sub- | under, down, secondary |
super- | above, excessive |
syn- | with, together |
tele | far |
ten/tend/tens | stretch, thin |
trans-/tra- | across, through |
trud/trus | thrust |
bell | war |
bi | two |
cens | judge, assess |
cent | hundred, hundredth |
cephal | head |
crat/crac | govern |
cur | care |
decem/decim/deca | ten, tenth |
dem | people |
demi | half |
di/dich/dy/du | two |
dipl | double |
fla | blow |
hecto/hecato | hundred, many |
hemi/semi | half |
hept/sept/septen | seven, seventh |
hex/sex | six, sixth |
kilo | thousand |
loc | place |
lumen/lumin | light |
man | hand, handle |
milli | thousand(th) |
mono | one |
myri | countless, numerous, 10,000 |
noven/nona | nine, ninth |
octo/octav | eight |
pauc | few |
penta | five |
plur | many, more |
pol | community, society |
poly | many |
prim/prin | first, foremost |
proto | first, earliest |
quadr/quarter/quart | four, fourth |
quin/quint/quinqu | five, fifth |
sesqui | one and a half, one half more |
son | sound |
tetra/tessara | four |
tri/tris/trich/ter | three |
un | one |
vig/viginti/vic | twenty |
ac/acer/acerb | sharp, tip, extremities |
agr | field |
alb/albin | white |
aster | star |
aud | hear |
auto, tauto | self, same |
bath, bathy | depth |
bene/bon | good, well |
brach/brachy | short |
car/carn | flesh |
sli/cliv/slin | lean, lie, bed |
cre/cred | believe, trust |
crypt/cryph | secret, hidden |
dam/damn/dem/demn | loss, harm |
dec/dic/deic | speak, point |
dit/don/dot | give |
dos/dow/da/dat | ? |
dol/dolor | suffer |
flu/fluc/fluv | flow, river |
glosss/glot/glott | tongue, speech |
gn/gnos/gnor | know |
gyn/gynec | woman, female |
hes/her | to stick hold back |
hyd/hydr | water |
jus/jur | judge, law, ritual |
lith/lite | stone |
mega/megal | great, million |
misc/mix | mix |
nihil/hil | nothing |
ocl/ocell | eye |
pen/pun | punish |
ple/plec/plic | fold, tangle |
ple/plen | full, many |
pon/pos | place, put |
pug/pugn | fist, fight |
tach/tachy | fast |
tact/tax | arrange, order |
terr | earth |
vac/van | empty |
ver/verg/vers | turn |
viv/vit | life |
soror | sister |
spor | scatter, seed |
the | place, put |
uxor | wife |
val | strong, useful |
vac/vok | speak, call, voice |
al/all/allel | other |
card/cord | heart, agree |
cruc | cross, important point |
dec/decor | acceptable |
ed/es | eat |
fa/pha/phe | speak, spoken of |
fer/pher/phor | bear, carry, send, bring |
frater | brother |
ge | earth |
gem/gemin | twin |
ger | old person |
graph/gram | write, record |
juven | young |
lat | carry |
lig | tie, bind |
lign | wood |
loqu/locu | speak |
magn | great, large |
mater/metr | mother, womb, surrounding stuff |
myc | fungus |
noc/nyc | night |
nomen/onom/onomat/onym | name |
orth | straight, correct |
paleo | old |
pater | father, country |
ped/paed | child, teach |
ped/pod/pus | foot |
phyll | leaf |
phyt | plant |
pom | fruit, apple |
pred | prey |
rhizo | root |
sal/saul | jump |
salv/salu | safe, healthy |
aden | gland |
alg | pain |
aur | ear |
axill | armpit |
caud/doc | tail |
cervic | neck, neck of uterus |
cut | skin |
derm/dermat | skin |
gaster | stomach |
gravid | pregnant |
hem/em | blood |
hepat | liver |
hist | body tissue |
hyster | womb, neurotic disorder |
-ia | land, state, medical condition |
-it is | inflammation |
lab | lip |
lac | milk |
lacrim/lachrym | tear, tear duct |
laryng | voice box, vocal cords |
mamm | breast |
nas/nar | nose |
nephr | kidney |
-oma | tumor, growth |
op/ophthalm | eye, see |
os/osteo | bone |
os/or | mouth, opening |
phleb | vein |
phob | fear |
phylac | guard |
pne/pneum | lung, respiration |
pulmo | lung |
rhin | nose |
sarc | flesh |
scler | hard |
sep | putrid, infected |
stom | mouth, opening |
thromb | clot |
vas/ves | blood vessel, duct |
ven | vein |
ali | wing |
api | bee |
arachn | spider |
bov/bu/bos/bou | cow, milk |
chir | hand |
clam/claim | cry out, call |
clav | key, locked |
col | live, inhabit, grow |
curs/curr | run |
den/odon | tooth |
dendr/dr/dry | tree |
dyn | power |
ev | age, time |
formic | ant |
herp/herpet/serp | creep, reptile |
hor | hour, time, season |
ichthy | fish |
ly/lv/lu | loosen, dissolve |
mal/male | bad |
mant/manc | prophesy |
mun | common, public, gift |
naut/nav | boat, seafaring |
nul/null | nothing |
orn/ornith | bird |
ov/oo | egg |
ox/oxy | sharp, sour, oxygen |
phag | eat |
pithec | ape |
plac | please, flat |
pter | feather, wing |
rog | ask, take away |
sen | old |
som | body |
soph | wuse, knowledge |
strat | stretch, level, layer |
telo-/teleo- | end, complete |
trop | turn |
- Latin and Greek Morphology
Classical Morphology
Latin and Greek are both languages of the inflectional type, that is,
they use a lot of bound morphology to indicate much of the grammatical
information in the language. (In contrast, English and many other
languages of the world primarily use syntactic constructions, i.e.
combinations of words; the role of bound morphology for grammar is then
proportionally smaller.) Latin had grammatical systems in which both the nouns and the verbs (and to a certain extent the adjectives) fell into classes. The class a word belonged to determined the particular inflectional endings it occurred with
Noun classes
Latin had two simultaneously operative noun class systems: gender (masculine, feminine and neuter) and also what are called declensions. There were five different noun declensions, and the declensions were more important for determining the endings on nouns than the gender. (Declensions gradually became less important and finally essentially disappeared, leaving only the two-way gender classifications in the modern Romance languages). Membership in a given declension was arbitrary, or rather only understandable historically.
The form of a noun that was most diagnostic of which declension it belonged to was the genitive (possessive) case. In other words, you could tell what class the word was in by looking at the genitive form. The declensions were numbered arbitrarily (first through fifth) by the Roman grammarians.
For example, the first declension is identifiable by the ending -ae in the genitive:
femina, feminae | 'woman, of the woman' |
porta, portae | 'door, of the door' |
nauta, nautae | 'sailor, of the sailor' |
vir, viri | 'man, of the man' |
amicus, amici | 'friend, of the friend' |
bellum, belli | 'war, of the war' |
rex, regis | 'king, of the king' |
mens, mentis | 'mind, of the mind' |
urbs, urbis | 'city, of the city' |
manus, manus | 'hand, of the hand' |
senatus, senatus | 'senate, of the senate' |
cornu, cornus | 'horn, of the horn' |
fides, fidei | 'faith, of the faith' |
dies, diei | 'day, of the day' |
Each of the declensions had its own set of case and number endings (although there was some degree of overlap). The genitive endings are most important, not only from the Latin point of view (because they indicate which declension a noun belongs to), but from the ENGLISH point of view. The genitive shows the stem of the noun, that is, is the fullest form to which case/number endings were added; and the stem is the form that occurs in almost all English borrowings from Latin.
For example, the word for 'king' is in the nominative case form rex, but its genitive form is regis. Take off the genitive ending -is and we have the stem, reg- , which occurs in Latin borrowings like regicide and regency.
Verb classes
The verbs of Latin fell into four classes, called conjugations. The endings for person and number were slightly different depending on the conjugation; the tense endings show a little more distinction between the classes. The most obvious way the conjugations differed was in the vowel in the second syllable of the root (or first, if only one syllable). That vowel recurred in different forms of the verb, but it is easiest to notice in the infinitive form. (The infinitive is the form that can stand alone, but is not inflected with any person and number endings. (We parse the word in-finit-ive 'without endings'.) The infinitive most closely corresponds translationally to the English to form of a verb as in to go . Notice:
The first conjugation has ain the infinitive:
amare | 'to love' |
portare | 'to carry' |
monere | 'to warn' |
tenere | 'to have' |
facere | 'to do' |
agere | 'to do, drive' |
ducere | 'to lead' |
audire | 'to hear' |
venire | 'to come' |
Knowing just four forms of a verb, one could derive all of the dozens of person/number/tense/voice/mood forms for that verb. These four forms are called the principal parts:
- the present (the 1st person singular form is usually cited, by convention in Latin grammar)
- the present infinitive
- the perfect active (again, the 1st. singular is usually the specific form given) and
- the past passive participle.
1st conj. | 2nd conj. | 3rd conj. | 4th conj. | |
1st singular present | amo | moneo | duco | audio |
present infinitive | amare | monere | ducere | audire |
1st singular perfect active | amavi | monui | duxi | audivi |
past passive participle | amatum | monitum | ductum | auditum |
'love' | 'warn' | 'lead' | 'hear' |
The most important forms from the point of view of English borrowings are the present infinitive stem and the past participle stem. They are the forms which almost always appear in English borrowings from Latin. Examples:
Pres. infinitive stem:
- tangible
- audience
- dependent
- induce
- amatory
- duct, induction
- auditory
- contact
- admonitory
753 BC — Traditional date of the founding of the city of Rome by Romulus, a fictional character who killed his twin brother Remus, populated his city with escaped convicts, and found wives for his subjects by kidnapping Sabine women who had come for a visit. At this stage, Latin is the language spoken by several thousand people in and near Rome.
6th century BC — Earliest known Latin inscription, on a pin, which says "Manios me fhefhaked Numasioi", meaning "Manius made me for Numerius". Only a few other inscriptions predate the 3rd century BC.
250-100 BC — Early Latin. The first Latin literature, usually loose translations of Greek works or imitations of Greek genres, stems from this period. Meanwhile, the Romans are conquering the Mediterranean world and bringing their language with them.
100 BC-150 AD — Classical Latin. Guys like Cicero, Caesar, Vergil, and Tacitus write masterpieces of Latin literature. Also, Ovid writes a book on how to pick up women at the gladiator shows. The literary language becomes fixed and gradually loses touch with the ever- changing popular language known today as Vulgar Latin.
200-550 — Late Latin. Some varieties of literature adhere closely to the classical standard, others are less polished or deliberately closer to the popular speech (e.g., St. Jerome's translation of the Bible into Latin—the Vulgate). The western half of the empire is falling to pieces, but the Greek-speaking east, which is still in good shape, keeps using Latin in official contexts until the end of this period.
600-750 — Latin has become a dead language. Few people in the west outside of monasteries can read. The spoken languages of Italy, France and Spain change rapidly. Monks, particularly in Ireland, read and write classical Latin and preserve ancient texts as well as church documents. The Roman Catholic church continues to use Late Latin in the liturgy, though they eventually decide to deliver homilies in the local popular language. The Byzantines still call themselves Romans but have given up on the Latin language.
800-900 — The Carolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne decides that education is a good thing and promotes it in his kingdoms. After his death scholarship goes downhill a while, but never as far as it had before his reign.
1100-1300 — Contact with the educated Arabs who have conquered North Africa and Spain leads to a revival of learning, especially the study of Aristotle and other Greeks. Leading smart guys include St. Thomas "The Dumb Ox" Aquinas and John "Dunce" Scotus, as well as Petrus Hispanus, a pope who was killed when a ceiling collapsed on him. All learned writing is done in Latin, a practice which persisted until the 20th century at some fairly silly universities.
Mid 14th century — The Black Death kills a lot of people, including students, professors and other people who live in crowded, unsanitary cities. This is bad for the educational system. Meanwhile, an Italian poet named Petrarch decides that plague-infested professors and anyone else who doesn't write the classical Latin used by Cicero is a moron. In fact, everyone between Cicero and Petrarch was a moron in the latter's opinion, so it was high time to have a Renaissance and make fun of everything medieval.
1400-1650 — During the Renaissance, which spreads from Italy to France and finally to England, people start reading Latin classical authors and bringing Latin words into their languages. In England, this is called "aureate diction" and is considered evidence of great learnedness. Furthermore, as science develops, Europeans find it useful to have a universal Latinate terminology to facilitate international research.
up till 1900 — Almost everyone who goes to college has to learn Latin, and most humanities majors have to study Greek as well. Many of the Latin roots borrowed during the aureate diction period have come to seem native and can be used in forming new words.
mid 1960s — The Catholic Church decides that Latin is no longer the obligatory language of Catholic liturgies. Meanwhile, what with free love and everything, most young people of the 60s figure they have better things to do than learn Latin.
Today — Nobody speaks Latin well, and few people can write it, but lots can read it. Many of them are tenured professors, so they'd be hard to get rid of even if we wanted to.
- Word Formation and Neologisms
Throughout the history of English new words have been incorporated into the language through borrowing (from languages as varied as Latin, Greek, Scandinavian, Arabic, and many others) as well as through the application of morphological and derivational rules to existing words and morphemes. Words currently entering the language are called neologisms (from "neo" new and "log" word).
Major Periods of Borrowing
Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language (the source language). A loanword can also be called a borrowing. The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source language into their native language. "Loan" and "borrowing" are of course metaphors, because there is no literal lending process. There is no transfer from one language to another, and no "returning" words to the source language. The words simply come to be used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one these words originated in.
Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other. In this case the source language community has some advantage of power, prestige and/or wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable and useful to the borrowing language community. For example, the Germanic tribes in the first few centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they adopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the other hand, passed into Latin.
The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing language know the source language too, or at least enough of it to utilize the relevant word. They (often consciously) adopt the new word when speaking the borrowing language, because it most exactly fits the idea they are trying to express. If they are bilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the words the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. For example, English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with a pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found. Presumably the very first speakers who used the word in English knew at least some French and heard the word used by French speakers, in a French-speaking context.
Those who first use the new word might use it at first only with speakers of the source language who know the word, but at some point they come to use the word with those to whom the word was not previously known. To these speakers the word may sound 'foreign'. At this stage, when most speakers do not know the word and if they hear it think it is from another language, the word can be called a foreign word. There are many foreign words and phrases used in English such as bon vivant (French), mutatis mutandis (Latin), and Fahrvergnuegen (German).
However, in time more speakers can become familiar with a new foreign word or expression. The community of users of this word can grow to the point where even people who know little or nothing of the source language understand, and even use, the novel word themselves. The new word becomes conventionalized: part of the conventional ways of speaking in the borrowing language. At this point we call it a borrowing or loanword.
(It should be noted that not all foreign words do become loanwords; if they fall out of use before they become widespread, they do not reach the loanword stage.)
Conventionalization is a gradual process in which a word progressively permeates a larger and larger speech community, becoming part of ever more people's linguistic repetoire. As part of its becoming more familiar to more people, a newly borrowed word gradually adopts sound and other characteristics of the borrowing language as speakers who do not know the source language accommodate it to their own linguistic systems. In time, people in the borrowing community do not perceive the word as a loanword at all. Generally, the longer a borrowed word has been in the language, and the more frequently it is used, the more it resembles the native words of the language.
English has gone through many periods in which large numbers of words from a particular language were borrowed. These periods coincide with times of major cultural contact between English speakers and those speaking other languages. The waves of borrowing during periods of especially strong cultural contacts are not sharply delimited, and can overlap. For example, the Norse influence on English began already in the 8th century A.D. and continued strongly well after the Norman Conquest brought a large influx of Norman French to the language.
It is part of the cultural history of English speakers that they have always adopted loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they have come in contact with. There have been few periods when borrowing became unfashionable, and there has never been a national academy in Britain, the U.S., or other English-speaking countries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continental European countries.
The following list is a small sampling of the loanwords that came into English in different periods and from different languages.
I. Germanic period
Latin
The forms given in this section are the Old English ones. The original Latin source word is given in parentheses where significantly different. Some Latin words were themselves originally borrowed from Greek. It can be deduced that these borrowings date from the time before the Angles and Saxons left the continent for England, because of very similar forms found in the other old Germanic languages (Old High German, Old Saxon, etc.). The source words are generally attested in Latin texts, in the large body of Latin writings that were preserved through the ages.
ancor | 'anchor' |
butere | 'butter' (L < Gr. butyros) |
cealc | 'chalk' |
ceas | 'cheese' (caseum) |
cetel | 'kettle' |
cycene | 'kitchen' |
cirice | 'church' (ecclesia < Gr. ecclesia) |
disc | 'dish' (discus) |
mil | 'mile' (milia [passuum] 'a thousand paces') |
piper | 'pepper' |
pund | 'pound' (pondo 'a weight') |
sacc | 'sack' (saccus) |
sicol | 'sickle' |
straet | 'street' ([via] strata 'straight way' or stone-paved road) |
weall | 'wall' (vallum) |
win | 'wine' (vinum < Gr. oinos) |
Latin
apostol | 'apostle' (apostolus < Gr. apostolos) |
casere | 'caesar, emperor' |
ceaster | 'city' (castra 'camp') |
cest | 'chest' (cista 'box') |
circul | 'circle' |
cometa | 'comet' (cometa < Greek) |
maegester | 'master' (magister) |
martir | 'martyr' |
paper | 'paper' (papyrus, from Gr.) |
tigle | 'tile' (tegula) |
brocc | 'badger' |
cumb | 'combe, valley' |
Devon, Dover, Cornwall, Thames, Avon...)
III. Middle English Period (1100-1500)
Scandinavian
Most of these first appeared in the written language in Middle English; but many were no doubt borrowed earlier, during the period of the Danelaw (9th-10th centuries).
- anger, blight, by-law, cake, call, clumsy, doze, egg, fellow, gear, get, give, hale, hit, husband, kick, kill, kilt, kindle, law, low, lump, rag, raise, root, scathe, scorch, score, scowl, scrape, scrub, seat, skill, skin, skirt, sky, sly, take, they, them, their, thrall, thrust, ugly, want, window, wing
- Place name suffixes: -by, -thorpe, -gate
- Law and government—attorney, bailiff, chancellor, chattel, country, court, crime, defendent, evidence, government, jail, judge, jury, larceny, noble, parliament, plaintiff, plea, prison, revenue, state, tax, verdict
- Church—abbot, chaplain, chapter, clergy, friar, prayer, preach, priest, religion, sacrament, saint, sermon
- Nobility—baron, baroness; count, countess; duke, duchess; marquis, marquess; prince, princess; viscount, viscountess; noble, royal (contrast native words: king, queen, earl, lord, lady, knight, kingly, queenly)
- Military—army, artillery, battle, captain, company, corporal, defense,enemy,marine, navy, sergeant, soldier, volunteer
- Cooking—beef, boil, broil, butcher, dine, fry, mutton, pork, poultry, roast, salmon, stew, veal
- Culture and luxury goods—art, bracelet, claret, clarinet, dance, diamond, fashion, fur, jewel, oboe, painting, pendant, satin, ruby, sculpture
- Other—adventure, change, charge, chart, courage, devout, dignity, enamor, feign, fruit, letter, literature, magic, male, female, mirror, pilgrimage, proud, question, regard, special
Sometimes it's hard to tell whether a given word came from French or whether it was taken straight from Latin. Words for which this difficulty occurs are those in which there were no special sound and/or spelling changes of the sort that distinguished French from Latin
IV. Early Modern English Period (1500-1650)
The effects of the renaissance begin to be seriously felt in England. We see the beginnings of a huge influx of Latin and Greek words, many of them learned words imported by scholars well versed in those languages. But many are borrowings from other languages, as words from European high culture begin to make their presence felt and the first words come in from the earliest period of colonial expansion.
Latin
- agile, abdomen, anatomy, area, capsule, compensate, dexterity, discus, disc/disk, excavate, expensive, fictitious, gradual, habitual, insane, janitor, meditate, notorious, orbit, peninsula, physician, superintendent, ultimate, vindicate
- anonymous, atmosphere, autograph, catastrophe, climax, comedy, critic, data, ectasy, history, ostracize, parasite, pneumonia, skeleton, tonic, tragedy
- Greek bound morphemes: -ism, -ize
- via Spanish—alcove, algebra, zenith, algorithm, almanac, azimuth, alchemy, admiral
- via other Romance languages—amber, cipher, orange, saffron, sugar, zero, coffee
Period of major colonial expansion, industrial/technological revolution, and American immigration.
Words from European languages
French
French continues to be the largest single source of new words outside of very specialized vocabulary domains (scientific/technical vocabulary, still dominated by classical borrowings).
- High culture—ballet, bouillabaise, cabernet, cachet, chaise longue, champagne, chic, cognac, corsage, faux pas, nom de plume, quiche, rouge, roulet, sachet, salon, saloon, sang froid, savoir faire
- War and Military—bastion, brigade, battalion, cavalry, grenade, infantry, pallisade, rebuff, bayonet
- Other—bigot, chassis, clique, denim, garage, grotesque, jean(s), niche, shock
- French Canadian—chowder
- Louisiana French (Cajun)—jambalaya
- armada, adobe, alligator, alpaca, armadillo, barricade, bravado, cannibal, canyon, coyote, desperado, embargo, enchilada, guitar, marijuana, mesa, mosquito, mustang, ranch, taco, tornado, tortilla, vigilante
- alto, arsenal, balcony, broccoli, cameo, casino, cupola, duo, fresco, fugue, gazette (via French), ghetto, gondola, grotto, macaroni, madrigal, motto, piano, opera, pantaloons, prima donna, regatta, sequin, soprano, opera, stanza, stucco, studio, tempo, torso, umbrella, viola, violin
- from Italian American immigrants—cappuccino, espresso, linguini, mafioso, pasta, pizza, ravioli, spaghetti, spumante, zabaglione, zucchini
- Shipping, naval terms—avast, boom, bow, bowsprit, buoy, commodore, cruise, dock, freight, keel, keelhaul, leak, pump, reef, scoop, scour, skipper, sloop, smuggle, splice, tackle, yawl, yacht
- Cloth industry—bale, cambric, duck (fabric), fuller's earth, mart, nap (of cloth), selvage, spool, stripe
- Art—easel, etching, landscape, sketch
- War—beleaguer, holster, freebooter, furlough, onslaught
- Food and drink—booze, brandy(wine), coleslaw, cookie, cranberry, crullers, gin, hops, stockfish, waffle
- Other—bugger (orig. French), crap, curl, dollar, scum, split (orig. nautical term), uproar
- bum, dunk, feldspar, quartz, hex, lager, knackwurst, liverwurst, loafer, noodle, poodle, dachshund, pretzel, pinochle, pumpernickel, sauerkraut, schnitzel, zwieback, (beer)stein, lederhosen, dirndl
- 20th century German loanwords—blitzkrieg, zeppelin, strafe, U-boat, delicatessen, hamburger, frankfurter, wiener, hausfrau, kindergarten, Oktoberfest, schuss, wunderkind, bundt (cake), spritz (cookies), (apple) strudel
- bagel, Chanukkah (Hanukkah), chutzpah, dreidel, kibbitzer, kosher, lox, pastrami (orig. from Romanian), schlep, spiel, schlepp, schlemiel, schlimazel, gefilte fish, goy, klutz, knish, matzoh, oy vey, schmuck, schnook,
- fjord, maelstrom, ombudsman, ski, slalom, smorgasbord
- apparatchik, borscht, czar/tsar, glasnost, icon, perestroika, vodka
Sanskrit
- avatar, karma, mahatma, swastika, yoga
- bandanna, bangle, bungalow, chintz, cot, cummerbund, dungaree, juggernaut, jungle, loot, maharaja, nabob, pajamas, punch (the drink), shampoo, thug, kedgeree, jamboree
- curry, mango, teak, pariah
- check, checkmate, chess
- bedouin, emir, jakir, gazelle, giraffe, harem, hashish, lute, minaret, mosque, myrrh, salaam, sirocco, sultan, vizier, bazaar, caravan
- banana (via Portuguese), banjo, boogie-woogie, chigger, goober, gorilla, gumbo, jazz, jitterbug, jitters, juke(box), voodoo, yam, zebra, zombie
- avocado, cacao, cannibal, canoe, chipmunk, chocolate, chili, hammock, hominy, hurricane, maize, moccasin, moose, papoose, pecan, possum, potato, skunk, squaw, succotash, squash, tamale (via Spanish), teepee, terrapin, tobacco, toboggan, tomahawk, tomato, wigwam, woodchuck
- (plus thousands of place names, including Ottawa, Toronto, Saskatchewan and the names of more than half the
states of the U.S., including Michigan, Texas, Nebraska, Illinois)
- chop suey, chow mein, dim sum, ketchup, tea, ginseng, kowtow, litchee
- geisha, hara kiri, judo, jujitsu, kamikaze, karaoke, kimono, samurai, soy, sumo, sushi, tsunami
- bamboo, gingham, rattan, taboo, tattoo, ukulele, boondocks
- boomerang, budgerigar, didgeridoo, kangaroo (and many more in Australian English)
These are neologisms collected by an undergraduate linguistics class at Rice University during the fall of 2003.
A
abroadness |
context and source: A senior applying for a fellowship stated that he would like to take a year off and enjoy some "abroadness" instead of going straight to graduate school. |
apparent meaning: the state of being abroad. |
type of word formation: known stem with alternate ending |
reason used: This word is simply shorter than that phrase "being overseas for the purpose of studying." I understood exactly what he meant without him using superfluous words. |
dictionary entry: abroadness - n. - state of being outside of one's country of residence for the purpose of higher education. Formed from abroad (overseas, usually for the purpose of studying) and -ness ( a noun-forming suffix). I'm going to be really burned out after four years of Rice, so I'm looking forward to a little abroadness. |
administrivia |
context and source: "I don't have your homeworks graded yet because I got stuck taking care of administrivia this morning." -- heard from one of my professors last month (November 2003). |
composed of: administration 'management' + trivia 'insignificant trifles' |
apparent meaning: tedious and mundane organizational and administrative tasks |
type of word formation: blending and clipping |
reason used: Clever way to describe the menial tasks required for bookkeeping and organization. |
dictionary entry: administrivia - n. mundane, repetitive busy work required for general record-keeping. ('Before getting to the day's work, the CEO had to get through the daily administrivia.') [blending and clippin: formed from 'administration' + 'trivia'] |
Adultolescence |
context and source: "?the perils of adultolescence?" (The Rice Graduate 24 Sep 2003) |
composed of: 'adult' (fully-developed and mature person) + 'adolescence' (the process of growing up) |
apparent meaning: moving back in with your parents after graduating from college |
type of word formation: blend of 'adult' + 'adolescence' |
reason used: The author was trying to accurately name the state of moving back in with one's parents as an adult, especially after college graduation. Adolescence and the years immediately following was the last time many people lived with their parents full-time. By blending 'adult' and 'adolescence,' you get the idea that the person is stuck between the adult world and adolescence. |
dictionary entry: Adultolescence, n. living with one's parents as an adult, esp. after college graduation ('the job market was weak so he opted for adultolescence') [blend of 'adult' + 'adolescence'] |
Advertorial |
context and source: When discussing possible post-graduation jobs, a friend said her experience working at a low-scale magazine in town was not a good one, particularly because they made her write many advertorials (Nov. 28, 2003). |
composed of: advertisement + editorial |
apparent meaning: What is written when a company pays to have a good story written about them in a publication. |
type of word formation: blend |
reason used: By adding a hint of advertising to the word about a story, the piece acquires a negative connotation, thus insinuating how journalists often feel about such pieces. |
dictionary entry: Advertorial, n. An article that has been paid for (This story is so positive it's clearly an advertorial.) [new blend, formed from 'advertisement' + 'editorial'] |
aftsoac |
context and source: "Aftsoac that 'x' is not prime??.." (a math friend over IM, 9/15/03) |
apparent meaning: Assume for the sake of a contradiction |
type of word formation: acronym |
reason used: In math proofs, it is common to start a proof by saying "Assume for the sake of a contradiction that?.." and set about proving a proposition. However, my friend truncated this phrase because he got tired of typing the whole thing. We have been using 'aftsoac' quite frequently ever since, even over telephone conversations (we end up making the 't' silent). |
dictionary entry: aftsoac Assume for the sake of a contradiction ("Aftsoac that y is positive") [acronym: assume for the sake of a contradiction] |
Ah-hah |
context and source: "If these lectures have given you any ah-hahs, give yourself a point." (Susan Lieberman, December 2, 2003) |
composed of: |
apparent meaning: sudden realization |
type of word formation: onomatopoeia |
reason used: This word uses an expression and connects it with the processes going on in our brain. When we suddenly understand something, we say "ah-hah." An ah-hah, then, is used to capture the state of realization. |
dictionary entry: Ah-hah n. A sudden understand or realization, usually after exposure to new or novel information. |
Alpha consumer |
context and source: "Watch the cool kids, the alpha consumers, today, and you can see what everybody else will be doing a year from now." (Time 8 Sep 2003) |
composed of: 'alpha' (something that is first) + 'consumer' (one who buys goods and services) |
apparent meaning: one who picks up on trends before they become trends, perhaps creating or fueling the trend; used as a predictor for what will be popular in a few weeks or months |
type of word formation: compound of 'alpha' + 'consumer' |
reason used: The author was describing companies that profit by predicting trends in consumer goods. One way that they did this was by watching the habits of certain groups of people who tended to be the first to pick up on or even start the trend. These consumers, since they were the 'first,' were given the designation 'alpha.' |
dictionary entry: Alpha consumer, n. one who starts a trend or picks it up very early, often long before the rest of the population, usu. used as a predictor of economic trends ('this pattern was seen among alpha consumers months ago') [compound of 'alpha' + 'consumer'] |
Ambiturner |
context and source: The title character in the movie Zoolander can only turn around in one direction; he wishes he could turn both ways, which would make him an ambiturner. |
composed of: ambi + turn + er |
apparent meaning: able to turn around both ways |
type of word formation: compounding + derivation |
reason used: Zoolander is full of funny words because the main character is not very intelligent. He has his own way of speaking, and ambiturner fits into his speech. |
dictionary entry: Ambiturner, n. A person who can turn all the way around by going in either way (Only ambiturners can be good models.) [derivation, formed from 'ambi' + 'turn' + '-er'] |
Amerindians |
context and source: "My prof always just calls them Amerindians." Conversation; 10/13/03. |
apparent meaning: This word refers to the people who were on the North American continent before the arrival of Europeans. These people are also called Indians, Native Americans, or American Indians. This term was coined to make one of the more politically correct phrases shorter and therefore more convenient. |
type of word formation: blend of American and Indian |
dictionary entry: Amerindian [blend American + Indian] Noun. Any of the native people of North American. |
Anti-rail |
context and source: "An anti-rail spokesman said he was not surprised by the accident." (Click2Houston.com, 11/20/03) |
composed of: Composed of: 'anti-' (against, opposite) + 'rail' (railroad as a means of transportation) [from 'light-rail'] |
apparent meaning: opposed to the construction and use of light-rail lines and trains, particularly those of the light-rail system of the city of Houston |
type of word formation: compound/clipping |
reason used: Light-rail is a relatively recent phenomenon, and in Houston, it has become a controversial means of transportation, because its initial construction and future expansion may or may not cost taxpayers more money. As a result, there are those who are opposed to the city's new light-rail system, and there has arisen a new adjective to describe these people. By adding the oppositional morpheme 'anti-' to 'rail' (a clipped form of 'light-rail'), one arrives at a new word for describing light-rail's opponents. |
dictionary entry: anti-rail, adj. Opposed to the construction and use of light-rail lines and trains, particularly those of the light-rail system of the city of Houston. ('anti-rail lobbyists') [new compound/clipping; formed from 'anti-' + 'rail' (light-rail)] |
anyhoo |
context and source: 'Anyhoo, so what are you doing this weekend?' (conversation with friend, week of 11/3, 2003) |
composed of: 'any' (a relative numerical term) + hoo (non-sensical word) |
apparent meaning: an colloquial interjection meaning the same thing as anyways |
type of word formation: compound |
reason used: My friend was just having a conversation with me when he said this word. I suppose it is a just a colloquial or dialectical way of saying the word 'Anyways.' He was trying to end the current conversation and move on to a new topic, so he used an interjection. I believe this word also might have come about from the slight relaxation of the air passage when moving from the word 'ways' to 'hoo'. It sounds more casual and less deliberate than 'Anyways.' |
dictionary entry: anyhoo, interjection. Another way of saying the word 'anyways'; and so moving on.. ('Anyhoo, what did you do today?') [compound; formed from 'any' + 'hoo' (which is not a really a word, but more of a sound)] |
Appetize |
context and source: "It appetizes him." (Conversation with lab partner, 9/30/03) |
composed of: ad-/ap-' (to, toward) + 'pet' (seek) + '-ize' (V) |
apparent meaning: to be appealing to (the appetite of), to make hungry, to whet the appetite of |
type of word formation: back formation |
reason used: The word 'appetizing' probably came from the word 'appetite,' with the final consonant changing before the addition of the present participle suffix '-ing.' 'Appetizing' means 'appealing to the appetite,' but its ending likely led some to believe that the adjective had been formed from a verb ending with the morpheme '-ize.' Thus, the word 'appetize' was coined by back formation, and it now seems to be used relatively frequently. Its meaning is consistent with that of 'appetize,' its "adjectival form." |
dictionary entry: appetize, v. To be appealing to (the appetite of), to make hungry, to whet the appetite of. ('a savory smell that appetizes someone') [new back formation; formed from 'appetizing' - '-ing'] |
Archi |
context and source: "Over to the left is Anderson Hall, home of all of Rice's Archis" O-week advisor Aug 2003 |
apparent meaning: architecture student |
type of word formation: clipping |
reason used: architecture student is a long phrase and when it is said often in the college environment of Rice it has been clipped |
dictionary entry: Archi, n. an architecture student [clipping: architecture] |
ass-flowers |
context and source: "It's not funny, guys, I might have ass-flowers!" (a friend, speaking of her GI problems 11/02) |
apparent meaning: there is only 1 thing that ass-flowers can possibly mean- hemorrhoids. |
type of word formation: analogy |
reason used: a semi-vulgar yet humorous way of referring to a serious problem. No reason other than sounding desperate and entertaining at the same time. |
dictionary entry: Ass-flowers, n. Hemorroids [derived by analogy] |
automagically |
context and source: "The car doors lock automagically when you go over a certain speed." Conversation; 10/9/03. |
apparent meaning: This word describes actions that happen automatically, but also seem to happen magically. The word may be used when the speaker does not understand the process by which the action occurs. It can also be used when the speaker would like for the audience to take such an action for granted, as he or she does not want to explain how the action occurs. Automagic events are often directed by computers or machines. This neologism was coined to describe actions which take place so much on their own, they seem to be magic. |
type of word formation: blend of automatic and magic |
dictionary entry: automagically [blend automatic + magic + al ADJ + ly ADV] Adverb.Describing an action which occurs automatically in a mysterious or magical way, especially when performed by a computer or machine. |
autostereographics |
context and source: Wired described a new study in the field of creating 3-D games without the use of 3-D glasses as autostereographics. |
composed of: |
apparent meaning: a new branch of technology dealing with how things look on a screen. |
type of word formation: compounding |
reason used: To convey each part of this new study, it was necessary to draw from different concepts, and therefore different words and morphemes, to put a proper name to it. Auto refers to self, meaning the screen can provide 3-D images without outside aid, stereo refers to sound, which is always a concern with computer programs, and graphics refer to written and drawn aspects of a program that creates the images we see. |
dictionary entry: autostereographics - n. - the field of computer technology that deals with the appearance of images on the screen. The study of autostereographics will revolutionize the way man interacts with machine. |
awesome-itude |
context and source: "These obviously and very factually prove that a good ninety-nine percent of my college stories are actually about college, that they have a maximum possible amount of the commonly referred to formula unit of 'awesome-itude', and that bullfighters are amazing." |
composed of: 'awesome' (very cool, outstanding) + 'magnitude' (great in size) |
apparent meaning: incredibly outstanding, nothing could be better. |
type of word formation: blend |
reason used: The writer was talking about how great his college stories are. He wanted to express that his stories went beyond awesome. Thus he created a blend between awesome and magnitude, giving awesome an extra level. |
dictionary entry: awesome-itude n. extremely outstanding and awe inspiring. ('formula unit of awesome-itude') [new blend; formed from 'awesome' + 'magnitude'] |
Bacheloric |
context and source: "Rick is getting more bacheloric as the years go by." (Katie Wilde, October 8, 2003) |
apparent meaning: having the characteristics of a bachelor |
type of word formation: affixation |
reason used: This word allows the speaker to succinctly describe one's proclivity towards a single life. It eliminates the necessity to expound on their life style by using a modified form of a word (bachelor), the meaning of which most people are familiar with. |
dictionary entry: Bacheloric adj. Having and embracing the characteristics of being unmarried. |
Bada-bing |
context and source: 'Bada-bing, I've got it' (television commercial) |
apparent meaning: It seems to be a joyful expression showing achievement or attainment of some personal goal. The use of similar phonemes, 'ba' and 'da' makes the phrase catchy and fun to say. |
type of word formation: Compound |
reason used: A speaker would use this term as a substitution for plain words like 'yeah' and 'yes'. It is a phrase that people usually say out loud, but to themselves. This term is similar to the out-dated phrase 'cha-ching' which had the same meaning. |
dictionary entry: bada-bing, n. An expression of satisfaction for an accomplishment, or something superfluous that an individual desires. |
bagel |
context and source: Overheard comments at tennis tournaments similar to the effect of "Yeah, I got bageled by the number one seed in the tournament in about 30 minutes." |
composed of: name of common circular pastry |
apparent meaning: to be held scoreless |
type of word formation: zero-derivation |
reason used: Most tennis tournaments are held over the course of a weekend and require players to play multiple matches in a day. At tournaments bagels are commonly eaten by players because they are as a quick, long-lasting energy food that won't upset their stomachs, which is important when having to play multiple times. Because of this, tennis players are familiar with bagels, and their circular shape lend themselves readily to the analogy of getting held scoreless, or zeroed, or bageled. |
dictionary entry: bagel - v. to hold an opponent to a score of zero, especially in a game or competition. ('The top seed in the tournament easily bageled his first round opponent.') [zero-derivation; formed from the noun 'bagel' describing the pastry] |
ball around |
context and source: "What are you up to? Just balling around?" in conversation with S. F., 9-26-03. |
composed of: "ball" (spherical object) + "around" (in proximity to or throughout a certain locale) |
apparent meaning: to hang out, be unproductive |
type of word formation: semantic shift (possibly metaphor) and zero derivation |
reason used: The origin of the phrase seems a bit obscure. Possible reasons include: 1) the phrase evokes mental imagery of a ball rolling around aimlessly; 2) the other ways of communicating the same message seem old and overused; 3) this "hanging out" time was spent playing baseball, basketball, or the like at the time of the phrase's coining, and was later extended to other activities. |
dictionary entry: ball around, v. To spend time in no particularly useful pursuit. ("What have you been up to? Balling around as usual?") [New formation by zero derivation and semantic change from "ball" + "around."] |
Baller |
context and source: "That's what you call a baller." (Keith Clayton, October 26th, 2003) |
composed of: 'ball' (ballplayer) + '-er' (N) |
apparent meaning: A guy who usually gains fame and wealth as well as women through success sports. |
type of word formation: Clipping (Ballplayer) |
reason used: Professional basketball players (many, not necessarily all) have the reputation for being millionaires and consequently using this money to attract women, whether it is prostitutes or 'fans.' This stereotype led to the clipping of ballplayer to form the neologism baller to refer to this type of player. Now, a baller can refer to any ballplayer that has significant talent and some sort of reputation with women. |
dictionary entry: Baller n. Ballplayer, someone who is good at playing basketball, and has moved up to earning a lot of money and getting a lot of girls from that. [Formed from the clipping of ballplayer] |
baller |
Conversation with Sid freshman, 9/03. "?I'm going to go play basketball with my professor. He's such a baller." A term for an indisputably hip, cool person. I think it is taken from the expression "having guts" or "balls", meaning a certain amount of brevity and strength. It has obviously been extended to mean somebody that perhaps is not afraid to step out of their normal, conventional boundaries. I've also heard "that's ballin'" for something that is cool, unexpected. This is almost a back formation from a more familiar phrase, "he's got balls", or could just be made-up with no apparent connection. Used to present another colorful, descriptive way of saying that something is cool (there are similarly related words further down on this list). It definitely falls into the category of slang, and I think is used by a certain 'in-group' of people. baller, n. ballin', adj. Refers to person who is great, excellent, hip. ["Ball" + "-er" (characterized by)]. |
Baller |
context and source: "That guy from Brown is like the ultimate baller." - Martel Sophomore Trey Smith 11-3-03 |
composed of: 'ball' + '-er' (one who) |
apparent meaning: someone is incredibly good at something. |
type of word formation: analogy |
reason used: the speaker wanted to convey how good one of the intramural basketball players on the Brown team was. |
dictionary entry: Baller; n. someone who his extremely good at basketball. |
baller |
context and source: "He's a baller," Spanish study group participant, 10-8-03. |
composed of: "basket" (a type of container) + "ball" (round toy) + "-er" (noun suffix), minus "basket" |
apparent meaning: a person skilled in a particular area. |
type of word formation: derivation followed by clipping |
reason used: The original form, "basketballer," simply meant "a particularly talented basketball player," and was probably coined because a need was felt for a word with this definition. The word was probably then shortened for convenience's sake, and came to be applied to a wider variety of talented individuals. |
dictionary entry: " baller, n. A person who is particularly skilled in a certain sport, academic area, etc. ("He's a real baller when it comes to chemistry.") [new derivation and clipping, formed from "basketball" + "-er" minus "ball."] |
Ballinest |
context and source: "I shouldn't be the MVP, I should be the MBP: the Most Ballinest Player." - Suitemate Alec Young 11-3-03 |
composed of: 'ball' + 'ing' (participating in the act of) + '-est' (most). |
apparent meaning: the best player. |
type of word formation: analogy |
reason used: the speaker wanted to be silly or comical and use a word that would be used in the African American or hip hop community. |
dictionary entry: Ballinest; adj. the best basketball player. |
balling |
context and source: "Are you balling at the gym tonight?" -asked by member of freshman basketball team, early November. |
composed of: "ball" + "-ing" (verb suffix) |
apparent meaning:Playing basketball |
type of word formation: Analogy |
reason used: This is yet another case of a verb suffix being added to a common noun to signify the action associated with that noun. In this case, there appears to have been some clipping as well; the original term may have been "basketballing," but it has been shortened to "balling." This word is often used among those who play basketball often; it may be considered a slang word in that it helps create an "in" group among these players. |
dictionary entry: Balling, v. A term used for playing basketball; shortened from "basketballing" |
Bassackwards |
context and source: "?and then you've got Venus over there with its bassackwards rotation." - Dr. Pat Reiff from Astronomy 202 11-24-03 |
composed of: 'ass' (as in buttocks) + 'backwards' |
apparent meaning: something exceedingly backwards. |
type of word formation: compounding and blending |
reason used: Dr. Reiff wanted to illustrate how different or backwards Venus' rotation was. Because one's ass is located in the back, this word helps illustrate how extremely backwardness of something. |
dictionary entry: Bassackwards, adj. a word used to describe something that is completely and utterly backwards. |
beat |
context and source: "I wouldn't want to go out with her; she's beat," D. from Spanish 301 study group, 10-8-03 |
composed of: beat (verb meaning to physically abuse/assault) |
apparent meaning: ugly |
type of word formation: zero derivation/semantic change |
reason used: "beat" as an adjective is probably related to "beat" as a verb, based on the inference that a person who has been "beaten" has been physically disfigured. The type of zero derivation employed, which sounds as if it is made by omitting the inflectional ending "-en," has a tough guy/ghetto feel to it, an "in" sound for young Americans. |
dictionary entry: beat, adj. unattractive, especially referring to a female ("Nobody wants to a date with a beat girl like that"). [new word formation by zero derivation and semantic change, from "beat" (v.)] |
beaulicious |
context and source: "That cake is totally beaulicious, I'd eat half of it right now" (in La Madeleine's, looking at the desserts 12/01/03) |
apparent meaning: this interesting adjective is trying to appeal to two senses, that of vision and taste. The cake under question was both beautiful and very promising in terms of taste. |
type of word formation: blend of 'beautiful' and 'delicious' |
reason used: to capture and express two feelings with one meaningful colorful word. |
dictionary entry: Beaulicious, adj. Pleasing for both the eyes and the mouth; both aesthetically pleasing and tasty ('what a beaulicious wedding cake') [A blend, formed from 'beautiful' and 'delicious'] |
Bed-night snack |
context and source: "I want chocolate for a bed-night snack." |
apparent meaning: a midnight snack eaten in bed or perhaps a snack eaten at bedtime |
type of word formation: blend of bed and midnight snack |
reason used: to use a non-cliché form of midnight snack |
dictionary entry: Bed-night Snack, n. a late night snack eaten in bed [blend: bed and midnight snack |
Beerios |
context and source: "Some people have beerios for breakfast the morning of Beer Bike." (conversation with Jones sophomore 24 Oct 2003) |
composed of: 'beer' (alcoholic beverage) + 'cheerios' (type of cereal, commonly eaten for breakfast) |
apparent meaning: cereal topped with beer instead of milk |
type of word formation: blend of 'beer' + 'cheerios' |
reason used: This not uncommon breakfast food on the morning of Beer Bike needed a name. The cereal used does not necessarily need to be Cheerios (which is a certain brand of cereal) but that name was used because it made a good blend with 'beer.' |
dictionary entry: Beerios, n. cereal topped with beer instead of milk ('I had beerios for breakfast') [blend of 'beer' + 'cheerios'] |
Bennifer |
context and source: Something to the effect of: "Was the Bennifer wedding called off due to Ben's wild night in Canada? Stay tuned?" In all manner of society newspaper sections and magazines, on MTV and VH1 all throughout 2003 |
composed of: Ben (for Ben Affleck) + Jennifer (for Jennifer Lopez) |
apparent meaning: Noun succinctly referring to the superstar relationship and engagement between and movie stars Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez |
type of word formation: blending and clipping |
reason used: The name is used as a collective term describing not just the relationship but also the entire media circus and pop-culture fixation surrounding their betrothal. Bennifer sort of has the connotations of the name of a single mythical two-headed entity (monster). |
dictionary entry: Bennifer - n. The relationship between and engagement of moviestar supercouple Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez and the subsequent pop-culture fixation and hype surrounding their romantic escapades. ('Bennifer was spotted in the front row of the Red Sox game this afternoon') [blend; formed from 'Ben' + 'Jennifer'] |
Bewrecked |
context and source: Context and source: "The accident left her bewrecked of her car." Suitemate, October 19, 2003. |
apparent meaning: Deprived of something, in this case an automobile. Could possibly be used in situations involving other accidents. |
type of word formation: blend |
reason used:The speaker blended bereft and wrecked in a clever way-after a bad accident people usually are "deprived of" their cars. But, in this case, the similar sound ending made it especially possible to put these two words together. |
dictionary entry: Bewrecked: v. to be without, or deprived of, a thing lost in a wreck or accident. [a blend of bereft and wrecked] |
bib |
Online conversation with Whitman College freshman, 11/03. "….I've got work to do at the bib." An apparent shortening of the French word for library: bibliotheque. This formation is a clipping, from 'bibliotheque' to 'bib', it has also transcended languages, from French to English. I think clipping is especially prominent among groups of young people, colleges and universities. Whenever there are words that people repeat often, the words tend to gain names that are more fun to say (for instance, when people ask me what my major is, I say I am a 'musi' not a music major) or facilitate speech better ('bib' is certainly shorter to say than 'library' or 'bibliotheque') or they try to evoke a cooler, more entertaining image (saying that you're going to the 'bib' is more exciting than saying you're going to the 'library'). Since I have not heard the word 'bib' outside of this particular instance, I suspect it may be jargon for a specific group of people (i.e. undergrads at Whitman College). bib, n. Abbreviation for library, [Fr bibliotheque]. |
Biodefense |
context and source: " 'The whole focus was to contribute to the biodefense agenda of the country.'" (Mark Buller, head of University of St. Louis research team, quoted on MSNBC.com, 10/31/03) |
composed of: 'bio' (life) + 'defend/defens' (ward off, drive away, defend, protect) |
apparent meaning: (of or pertaining to) the military, governmental, and industrial management of the research and development of weapons, strategies, and other means of defending against biological weapons and warfare |
type of word formation: compound |
reason used: Even in ancient times, there were instances of biological warfare, but only recently have warring nations been able to produce and utilize biological weapons (like viruses, bacteria, and chemicals that can disrupt various bodily functions) on a large scale. These developments led to the formation of new terms, like 'bioweapon' and 'biological warfare.' Naturally, because there were weapons of this kind, there would also arise defenses against them, and these defenses (for the United States at least) had to be regulated, so they were to be the business of those concerned with the 'biodefense' of the country. There may have been a longer term, such as 'biological defense,' for this idea, but the single-word neologism does seem to facilitate communication. |
dictionary entry: biodefense, n. The military, governmental, and industrial management of the research and development of weapons, strategies, and other means of defending against biological weapons and warfare. ('much money has gone into the biodefense of this country') [new compound; formed from 'bio' + 'defense'] biodefense, adj. Of or pertaining to biodefense. ('the biodefense budget of the Unites States') [new compound; formed from 'bio' + 'defense'] |
bitchery |
context and source: 'Let's stop this bitchery!' (a friend after complaining and crying about someone, 10/26/03) |
composed of: 'bitch' and '-ery' (N) |
apparent meaning: whining, complaining, and a generally negative and unpleasant conversation |
type of word formation: derivation |
reason used: After expressing the extent of her negative emotional state, the author of the word was also not pleased with having just had another whining session, so she referred to her own conversation in a derogatory manner, at the same time trying to be facetious at the situation. The result was this new word, incorporating both the underlying meaning and humor. |
dictionary entry: Bitchery, n. A set of generally negative expressions full of whining and complaining. ('let's stop this bitchery and go do something fun) [new derivation from 'bitch' and 'ery'] |
Bizarred |
context and source: A roommate said she was "bizarred" by the high-level of activity on campus one night. (Nov. 22, 2003) |
composed of: bizarre + -ed |
apparent meaning: in a state of finding something bizarre |
type of word formation: derivation |
reason used: She found it odd and could not find a word to describe that feeling. However, everyone involved in the conversation understood that she found the instance bizarre when she said she was bizarred. |
dictionary entry: Bizarred, adj. To be in the state of having found something to be bizarre. (I feel so bizarred after watching that odd movie.) [Derivation, formed from 'bizarre' + '-ed'] |
blacksploitation |
context and source: "Often you hear of how certain groups have been discriminated against, like blacksploitation for example?" -comment heard in class, week of 11/3 |
composed of: "black" (describing a certain race) and "exploit" (to take unfair advantage of) + "-ion" (Noun-forming suffix) |
apparent meaning: A noun describing the experiences suffered by African-Americans during periods of discrimination and exploitation by others, most notably whites. |
type of word formation: blending |
reason used: This word seems to be a convenient way of summarizing the sufferings of African-Americans without using the awkward phrase "exploitation of black people by others." The word also lends itself to a blending derivation because of the "ks" sound at the end of "blacks" and the beginning of "exploit." Combining these two sounds into one is very convenient and does not require moving the tongue to create a separate sound. |
dictionary entry: blacksploitation, n. The systematic discrimination against and taking advantage of African-Americans, especially by whites. [new derivation, formed from "blacks" + "exploit" + "ion"] |
Bling |
context and source: Context and source: "J. Lo enjoys showing off her bling bling from Ben." People Magazine. October 2, 2003. |
apparent meaning: Large diamonds or other valuable gems |
type of word formation: onomatopoeia ("bling" describes the reflection of light off of a facet of a diamond) |
reason used: This word may have been used to highlight the extravagance of Jennifer's diamond and to cater to the audience of the informal, gossipy magazine (usually young to middle-aged women) |
dictionary entry: Bling: n. extravagant and showy jewelry, especially diamonds, used as a status symbol. |
bling |
context and source: "Man, look at all of that bling! He's definitely is blinging it!" -comments similar to this heard while watching MTV over the past year, especially whe R&B and rap was on. |
composed of: no identifiable morphemes |
apparent meaning: As a noun, bling (or bling-bling) is large, gaudy, excessively shiny and usually stone-encrusted jewelry. To bling is to be wearing this kind of jewelry |
type of word formation: slang |
reason used: this expression refers to the way that this kind of jewelry catches light and really makes the jewelry sparkle. It is in a way a kind of sound symbolism and synesthesia in that it attributes a sound effect to a visual stimulus. The sharp reflection of light off of the jewelry is similar to the sharp, high pitched sound heard when metal is bounced off of metal that produces a 'blinging' sound. |
dictionary entry: bling - 1. n. Large, very shiny and usually stone-encrusted jewelry typically worn ostentatiously. ('The rap stars walked down the red carpet covered in bling.') 2. v. to wear such jewelry ('The rap stars were blinging it as they walked down the red carpet.') [slang; no identifiable morphemes] |
bling-bling |
context and source: 'He's the king of bling-bling.' (Electronic Gaming Monthly October Issue, 2003) |
composed of: 'bling' + 'bling' |
apparent meaning: shiny metal trinkets, necklaces; objects of luxury |
type of word formation: sound symbolism |
reason used: This magazine article had a humorous picture of a game character with gold chains and rings. I have also heard this word phrase used on MTV and other places to describe excessive gold and metal objects worn by celebrities, rappers, and pimps. I think it came about from the sound all the metal makes clanging around a person's neck, arms, hands, etc. |
dictionary entry: bling-bling, n. luxury items like gold rings and chains that are used to show off how cool and stylish one is ('man, he's wearin' a lot of bling-bling') [sound symbolism; arising from 'bling' + 'bling'] |
blog |
context and source: 'Oh, I need to update my online blog.' (overheard from suitemate, week of 9/22, 2003) |
composed of: 'web' (an interconnection of many things) + 'log' (an account of many objects) |
apparent meaning: an online journal or diary where people can say whatever they feel like |
type of word formation: clipping a compound |
reason used: My suitemate was commenting on how he had not updated his journal that is posted on the internet. 'Blog' is a technological term that is a clipping of the word 'weblog.' I suppose people use blog instead because it is only one syllable and easier to say quickly than 'weblog.' This word can also be zero derived to form the verb form blog, meaning to write things in your online journal. 'to blog' |
dictionary entry: blog, n,v. 1. an online journal or diary, that usually wanders from subject to subject 2.to post entries in an online journal or diary ('I need to blog in my blog') [clipping a compound; arising from 'web' + 'log' minus 'we'] |
blog |
context and source: Members of different online journal communities describe the collection of their entries as their blog. |
apparent meaning: the abbreviation of weblog (web + log). |
type of word formation: compounding, then abbreviation |
reason used: Blog is the second phonetic syllable of weblog, and it's usually the second syllable and whatever follows that gets used in an abbreviation. |
dictionary entry: blog - n. - a collection of online journal entries. It is bad netiquette to put other people's names in your blog |
Blogger |
context and source: "We'll count on bloggers and those who know and appreciate online journals to help us spot trends, share tips and make connections." (MSNBC.com, 9/29/03) |
composed of: 'blog' (clipping of weblog, an internet journal) + '-er' (N, doer, performer of a certain action, one associated or involved with) |
apparent meaning: a person who maintains, frequents, actively searches for, or is otherwise familiar with online journals |
type of word formation: compound |
reason used: Because there had previously been no word referring to those who maintained, frequented, or actively searched for blogs, someone evidently coined this new word by adding the well-known suffix '-er' to the end of 'blog' (with the duplication of the final consonant of the root in the spelling of the neologism). It is not clear what particular meaning this word had when it first came into being (or if it ever had only one specific meaning at all), but it now has several different uses. |
dictionary entry:blogger, n. A person who maintains, frequents, actively searches for, or is otherwise familiar with online journals. ('the blogspotting tips of bloggers') [new compound; formed from 'blog' + '-er'] |
Blogger |
context and source: "Three years ago, Adam Kalsey set up a Web log to share his thoughts about online business and the digital revolution. Like countless other "bloggers," he lets his readers post comments on his entries." (Houston Chronicle, Nov. 16, 2003). |
composed of: Web + log + er |
apparent meaning: One who posts diary entries about themselves online |
type of word formation: blend + derivation |
reason used: Blog has become a common word in internet lingo, and blogger, one who blogs, is the next reasonable step as it is just a derivation. |
dictionary entry: blogger, n. a person who posts internet diaries (She spends a lot of time reading the accounts of other bloggers.) [a derived blend; formed from 'Web' + 'log' + 'er'] |
Blogosphere |
context and source: "As with any new territory, much is yet to be discovered about the dynamics and culture of the blogosphere, but mainstream media are quickly tuning in." (MSNBC.com, 9/29/03) |
composed of: 'blog' (clipping of weblog, an internet journal) + 'o' (linker) + 'sphere' (area of power, control, influence; domain) |
apparent meaning: the world or domain of blogs (weblogs) and bloggers (those who maintain or frequent blogs) |
type of word formation: compound |
reason used: Because of the recent development of blogs, there was no word referring to the world of blogs and bloggers, so this writer and possibly others before him chose to create a new word for this emerging idea by attaching the morpheme 'sphere' to 'blog,' and an 'o' was added to interrupt the consonant sequence created by the combination of the two roots. |
dictionary entry: blogosphere, n. The area or domain (especially on the internet) of influence of online journals and of those who maintain and/or frequent them. ('the culture of the blogosphere') [new compound; formed from 'blog' + 'o' + 'sphere'] |
Blogspotting |
context and source: "Send your blogspotting tips." (MSNBC.com, 9/29/03) |
composed of: 'blog' (clipping of weblog, an internet journal) + 'spot' (to detect, discern, or situate) + '-ing' (V, A, N, present participle) |
apparent meaning: the act of looking for blogs (weblogs), especially those with content of special interest |
type of word formation: compound |
reason used: Because of the recent emergence of blogs, there was no single word referring to the active search for blogs, so someone apparently thought that the present participle of the verb 'spot' would be an appropriate morpheme to add onto the word 'blog' to create this new word. The 'ing' is a present participle ending, which requires that the preceding verb double its final consonant if the high nature of the vowel is to be retained. Present participle forms can also be used as nouns and adjectives. |
dictionary entry: blogspotting, n. The act of searching (on the internet) for online journals, especially those with content of special interest. ('tips for blogspotting') [new compound; formed from 'blog' + 'spot' + '-ing'] blogspotting, adj. Of or pertaining to blogspotting. |
bofro |
context and source: " "siamac, her bofro who went with her, thinks that it is corruption with the police dept as well" (G. C-S, IM conversation, 10-28-03.) |
composed of: "boyfriend" (a male partner in a romantic relationship.) |
apparent meaning: boyfriend |
type of word formation: clipping/rhyming compound |
reason used: The original version of the word ("boyfriend") probably came to be seen as too cumbersome; short, rhyming phrases are easy on the ear and roll off the tongue. |
dictionary entry: " bofro, n. boyfriend ("She just broke up with her bofro of seven years.") [New word by clipping and rhyming compounding from "boyfriend."] |
bogon |
context and source: My scientifically nerdy roommate uses this term to break down bogus activities or occurrences. |
apparent meaning: smallest piece of a bogus event. |
type of word formation: blending (bogus + proton) |
reason used: Scientifically speaking, the smallest particles are neutrons and protons and electrons. So when analyzing something bogus piece by piece, it's helpful to have something to call each component of what is bogus. And the word bogon itself sounds a little bogus and that accentuates the meaning. |
dictionary entry: bogon - n. - the smallest discernible part of a bogus occurrence. The fact that some polls in the country closed early is just one bogon of the whole 2000 election fiasco. |
Bootie called |
context and source: 'She was bootie called last night' (Spike television network, Summer 2003) |
apparent meaning: Being asked to do a 'bootie call' i.e. sexual favor. Used to talk about a recent action in which a person, almost always a woman, is requested by a man for pleasure. The '-ed' changes the noun form into a verb form. |
type of word formation: Derivation |
reason used: To gossip about a woman's actions and sexual behavior. |
dictionary entry: bootie called, v. Called upon to give intimate pleasure on demand. |
booty |
context and source: While insulting the new CD of Jennifer Lopez, a deejay described her effort as "straight booty," and it was clear that he did not mean that in reference to her figure. |
apparent meaning: very bad or poor in quality to the point that one is confused at how something could be so terrible. |
type of word formation: zero derivation, slang |
reason used: Formal terms rarely convey the emotion behind someone's opinion. Such an informal, coarse word emphasizes the comtempt for whatever is being described. There could also be a correlation between someone making an ass of himself and calling the result "booty." |
dictionary entry: booty - adj. - of extremely poor quality, inspiring bewilderment because of its terribleness. Formed from an existing word that is now to be used as a slang term. Next week is going to be so booty; I have 3 exams in 2 days! |
Bootylicious |
(Adj.) Someone who has nice curves or an attractive rear end. (title of Destiny's Child pop single "Bootylicious") A blending of booty + delicious. Ex: "My body is too bootylicious for you, babe." Destiny's Child "Bootylicious" release date: 7/17/2001. |
Bootylicious |
"My body's too bootylicious for you, babe." Lyrics from a song by artist Beyonce - 2003 Definition - hot, sexy, etc. |
Bosshog |
(V, N) To bully, or a bully. As heard by a senior girl at Sid Richardson college. A compound of boss + hog. Ex: "The car behind me almost rear-ended me because it was bosshogging me on the freeway." This word began appearing in rap songs during 2001. |
bounce |
context and source: "Hey, we're late. You guys ready to bounce?" -- expression used often by my previous roommate last year and now frequently by me |
composed of: bounce 'rebound of an object off a surface' |
apparent meaning: to leave, to go |
type of word formation: slang |
reason used: Bounce may have been first used when doing something involving going from place to place like a bouncing ball, such as barhopping. Then it probably just came to mean to leave from the place you are at. |
dictionary entry: bounce - v. To go from or leave one's current location. ('When the party started to die down, we decided to bounce.') [slang; formed from 'bounce'] |
Break-downable |
adj. capable of being broken down into smaller parts or pieces. Derivation of an adjective from the verb phrase "break down" by adding the adjective-forming suffix "-able" meaning "capable of". It may also be formed by an analogy with words like "wearable" and "applicable". Context and source: "While some words are break-downable, the others?" |
BRB |
context and source: 'I'll BRB' (Posted message on instant messenger, 1998) |
apparent meaning: An abbreviation that lets someone know what you are doing, i.e. that you will 'be right back', or return. |
type of word formation: Acronym |
reason used: Used mainly for communication between friends. BRB is a quick way to let someone know that you will be coming back. It is used in both spoken and written language. |
dictionary entry: BRB, adv. Intended to return and resume an activity or conversation. |
bresilient |
adj. bresilience, n. I think I coined this word last year, early 2003? It has lived through my Portland friends. "What a bresilient idea…." I think the meaning of this word varies a lot. It is meant to be an adjective describing something that is both brilliant and resilient. It suggests something cool (another slang word?), but more transient, sophisticated. When I made up this word, I used it in writing much more often than I spoke it out loud. This word is a blend between two preexisting words in English: brilliant + resilient, resulting in a literal meaning that is something like 'bright and strong'. There is a bit of a rhyming scheme going on as well; this word would not work if 'brilliant' and resilient' didn't sound alike when spoken. Both words seem to roll off the tip of the tongue. bresilient, adj. Describing something that is great, wonderful, happy, healthy. [blend using brilliant + resilient]. |
Bridezilla |
context and source: "She's a bridezilla." (Watching TV show, 10/26/03) |
composed of: 'bride' (woman about to be married) + 'Godzilla' (gargantuan fictional Japanese reptile) |
apparent meaning: a bride who is extremely spoiled and domineering and who must have her way (as to the details of her own wedding), even to the last, most minute detail |
type of word formation: blend |
reason used: Because there has previously been no single word to describe brides who were exceptionally spoiled, meticulous, and bossy, someone (perhaps a writer for the television show, but probably somebody who had coined the word beforehand) apparently thought it humorously appropriate that such a bride be called a 'bridezilla.' This new word is a blend of 'bride' and the name of a fictional Japanese monster, Godzilla, who has been the title character of many films. The name 'Godzilla' is said to be the Americanized form of the original Japanese 'Gojira,' whose origin is dubious. |
dictionary entry: bridezilla, n. A woman (about to be married) who is exceptionally spoiled, meticulous, and domineering, especially about the details (however minute) of her own wedding. ('the bridezilla maintained that her bridesmaids' shoes had to be dyed to the exact color of their dresses') [new blend; formed from 'bride' + 'Godzilla'] |
Bridorexia |
context and source: "Breaking up is much more efficient than bridorexia." (Watching TV show, 10/26/03) |
composed of: 'bride' (woman about to be married) + 'anorexia' (chronic eating disorder characterized by lack of and appetite and eating) ['a-/an-' (without) + 'orexis' (appetite) + '-a' (N)] |
apparent meaning: the bride's regimen of restricted diet and/or exercise for the purpose of weight loss during the time period leading up to her wedding day, undertaken especially for the purpose of fitting into her wedding dress |
type of word formation: blend |
reason used: Because there has previously been no term describing some brides' forced diet and/or exercise to fit into her wedding dress (and to look better than any other females present, especially the bridesmaids) on her wedding day, a writer for this television series (or some other writer before him or her) coined this new formation, using the harsh imagery of the disorder anorexia nervosa, in order to describe this phenomenon in a single word. |
dictionary entry: bridorexia, n. The regimen (of a woman to be married) of restricted diet and/or exercise, undertaken in order to lose weight during the time period leading up to her wedding day, especially to fit into her wedding dress. ('losing weight by bridorexia') [new blend; formed from 'bride' + 'anorexia'] |
britney |
context and source: "Look at her, she's such a britney" (a conversation between two girl friends in a coffee shop regarding a young woman 11/30) |
apparent meaning: the girl in question dressed in a very liberal fashion (not wearing much at all), and looked rather sexually promiscuous. This word is referring to the singer Britney Spears, and her dressing habits. |
type of word formation: analogy |
reason used: to be clever, and emphasize the specific kind of dress, stance, and look that the girl in the coffee shop had. |
dictionary entry: Britney, n. A young woman of dubious moral integrity, mostly expressing herself through her minimal clothing and excessive makeup ('so many high school girls are britneys these days') [An analogy] |
Buddy-movie |
context and source: "At times, in fact, you feel like you're watching cookie-cutter action sequences with overcooked buddy-movie dialogue." (Click2Houston.com, 11/05/03) |
composed of: 'buddy' (good friend, partner) + 'movie' (a sequence of photographs projected onto a screen with sufficient rapidity as to create the illusion of continuous motion) ['mov/mot' (move) + '-ie' (diminutive)] [clipping and alteration of 'moving picture'] |
apparent meaning: of or pertaining to a movie (involving friendship) that one watches with a good friend (a feel-good movie) |
type of word formation: zero derivation |
reason used: For a long time, there have been movies that make people feel good about themselves, about others, and about the world in general. These are called 'feel-good movies.' More specifically, films that deal with the bond of friendship have been dubbed 'buddy-movies,' because people go to see them with their buddies. These movies may also have been so named because they most probably have buddies as their main characters. Because this word has come into everyday usage, it is not surprising that some have zero-derived it into an adjective for describing things that are "buddy-movie-like." |
dictionary entry: buddy-movie, adj. Of or pertaining to a movie (involving friendship) that one watches with a good friend (a feel-good movie). ('the friends seemed to be having a buddy-movie conversation') [new zero derivation; formed from 'buddy-movie, n.'] |
Buh |
context and source: "The Knighthood of Buh" (University of Texas organization, University of Texas website 10 Sep 2003) |
apparent meaning: violently funny, cool in an unorthodox way |
type of word formation: sound symbolism (sound made when fist is thumped against chest) |
reason used: The organization exists to provide members a place to practice comedy and bend social norms. The gesture of your fist hitting your chest is often associated with affirming your existence and making your mark, much as the members of this organization do. So the gesture, and the sound that accompanies it, became a symbol for the group, and the word for the sound came to stand for how the group members perceive themselves. |
dictionary entry: Buh, adj. Violently funny, cool in an unorthodox way ('the members were all buh') [sound symbolism for sound fist makes upon striking chest] |
Bunk |
context and source: "You think movies cause violence? That's bunk!" (Michael Gruits, August 29, 2003). |
apparent meaning: false, garbage |
type of word formation: clipping |
reason used: This is probably a clipping of bunkum: "empty talk." It is used in a more derogatory sense. It seems to conjure up cuss words. |
dictionary entry: Bunk n. A derogatory term for lies or rubbish. |
Bunk |
v. to put one bed on top of another or to make a bunk bed. Zero derivation from the noun "bunk (bed)". Context and source: "Why don't we bunk the bed so that we can have more room?" (In a conversation with my roommate on 9/20/2003) |
Bunyanesque |
context and source: "?his Bunyanesque performances [on the basketball court]?" -Sports Illustrated, 12/1/03 issue |
composed of: Bunyan (reference to Paul Bunyan, a character in an American folk tale) + "-esque," an adjective suffix |
apparent meaning: very impressive, almost superhuman |
type of word formation: Analogy/Affixation |
reason used: This word was created in an attempt to evoke a very strong mental image, specifically of amazing feats of strength or skill. Almost every American child becomes familiar with the tall tale of Paul Bunyan as he is growing up; therefore, a word such as "Bunyanesque" would be instantly recognizable and understood by a vast majority of people. The suffix "-esque" may have been used for a variety of reasons. Phonetically, it flows smoothly from the "n" sound to the "es" because the tongue is in good position to form those two sounds consecutively. Esthetically, "-esque" evokes a more majestic connotation, as opposed to other adjective suffixes like "-y" which seems more common and mundane. "Bunyany" does not have the same effect as "Bunyanesque." |
dictionary entry: Bunyanesque, adj. Describing an action or deed that is extremely impressive, if not superhuman; from the American tall tale featuring Paul Bunyan. |
buquad |
context and source: I said something similar to "This last week of classes, I've got buquads of homework to do." Used by me frequently and heard originally from my parents. |
composed of: no identifiable morphemes |
apparent meaning: A whole lot of something; a bunch |
type of word formation: new derivation |
reason used: Sounds and looks similar to many other words that mean a whole lot of something, like the French beaucoup, bushels, buckets, bunches, etc. My parents are both from the South, so it could be a Cajun variation on beaucoup. |
dictionary entry: buquad - n. A large quantity or amount; a lot ('At tennis practice, I worked on my serve technique by hitting buquads of balls.') [new derivation; similar to the French beaucoup] |
Burner |
context and source: "Our professor was definitely a burner." (Andy Gonzalez, October 11th, 2003) |
composed of: 'burn-' + '-er' (n) |
apparent meaning: Someone who is a letdown does not meet one's expectations. |
type of word formation: Zero Derivation, Metaphor |
reason used: In this instance, the speaker uses the word in a metaphorical sense. They had expectations for the professor that were not meant. This "burnt" them metaphorically, meaning they were let down and disappointed. It's the same idea as a parent saying that it hurt them to know that their child was behaving badly in school. It is an injury sustained to the mind more than the body. So because the professor has "burnt" them and their expectations, he is referred to as a 'burner.' |
dictionary entry: Burner n. A person or thing that fails to come up to the expectation or hope of [Zero derivation from burner] |
burninate |
context and source: 'The dragon used his fire to burninate the houses.' (overheard in a lunch conversation, week of 9/1, 2003) |
composed of: 'burn' (to set aflame) X 'terminate' (to kill or destroy) |
apparent meaning: to set things on fire while causing which destruction |
type of word formation: blend |
reason used: This guy was talking about dragons for some reason at lunch one day and spouted off this interesting word. When one thinks of a fire-breathing dragon, what does one think about? Death and destruction, plus lots of fire. Hence 'burn' and the word 'terminate' blend to form 'burninate.' I have also heard other people use back formation to form the word 'burnination,' the state or act of burninating. |
dictionary entry: burninate, v. to set aflame and cause mass destruction, usually associated with dragons ('the dragon burninated the village') [blend; arising from 'burn' X 'terminate'] |
burninating |
context and source: "Burninating the country side, burninating the peasants, burninating all the people in thatch roof cottages." (heard off of online flash cartoon 9/30/03) |
composed of: 'burn' (to produce fire or heat to destroy an object) + '-in' (n) + '-ate' (v) + '-ing' (v) |
apparent meaning: the act of laying waste to the land by fire. It is the action of a burninator. |
type of word formation: derivation |
reason used: The singer of the song wanted to describe the act of the dragon burning down everything with his fiery breath. By putting several morphemes together, he came up with a verb that conveys the act of burning things down. |
dictionary entry: burninating v. laying waste to the land by fire ('burninating the country side') [new derivation; formed from 'burn' + '-in' + '-ate' + '-ing'] |
burninator |
context and source: "Now he needs a name; how about Trogdor the Burninator." (heard off of online flash cartoon 9/30/03) |
composed of: 'burn' (to produce fire or heat to destroy an object) + '-in' (n) + '-ate' (v) + '-er/-or' (n) |
apparent meaning: a dragon who lays waste to the land by burning everything to the ground with his breath. |
type of word formation: derivation |
reason used: The speaker in the cartoon was looking for a word that described a dragon who laid waste to the land. He created a word that is based off of the word 'terminator.' By doing so, he further creates the image of a being that destroys everything in its path. |
dictionary entry: burninator n. name given to a creature that destroys using fire. ('Trogdor the Burninator') [new derivation; 'burn' + '-in' + '-ate' + '-er/-or'] |
buttmunch | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
context and source: "He's a buttmunch" (in conversation with roommate talking about a guy from highschool 12/1/03) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
composed of: 'butt' (to hit something with the head) + 'munch' (to eat food loudly) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
apparent meaning: someone that is being particularly annoying. The word can be used for someone liked by the speaker, it just means that the person is annoying the speaker. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
type of word formation: compound | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
reason used: The speaker was describing a guy from high school she was friends with that usually annoyed her. She used munch in her word because munching is eating food in an annoying way. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dictionary entry: buttmuch n. someone who is being annoying ('he's a buttmunch') [new compound; formed from 'butt' and 'munch'] C
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